Foie gras

     Le foie gras est une spécialité culinaire à base de foie frais issu de l'élevage puis de l'engraissement par gavage d’oies et de canards. Le foie gras frais est le produit agricole issu de l'élevage avicole et le foie gras cuit correspond à la spécialité culinaire.

Histoire

     Représentée dans les fresques de tombes vieilles de 4 500 ans à Saqqarah, la pratique du gavage des oies remonte au moins à l'Égypte ancienne. Les Égyptiens gavaient plusieurs espèces d'oiseaux palmipèdes, dont des oies, à l'aide de granules de grains rôtis et humidifiés.

     La pratique s'est poursuivie sous l'Empire romain. Pline l'Ancien évoque le gavage d'oies à l'aide de figues séchées. Au IV^e siècle, le De re coquinaria d’Apicius donne sa première recette. 

     Le foie produit s'appelait en latin Jecur ficatum, que l'on traduit littéralement par « foie aux figues ». Les anciens ne conservèrent que le terme ficatum ou figue pour sa dénomination, ce qui donna la forme figido au VIII^e siècle, puis fedie, feie au XII^e et finalement « foie ». Cette racine se retrouve dans les langues romanes, comme le français, l'italien, le portugais, l'espagnol et le roumain.

     La tradition du foie gras s'est perpétuée après la chute de l'Empire romain en Europe centrale, dans les communautés israélites. Les juifs utilisaient fréquemment la graisse d'oie pour la cuisson, car le beurre avec la viande et le saindoux leur étaient interdits. De plus, les huiles d'olive et de sésame étaient difficiles à obtenir en Europe centrale et de l'ouest. Les israélites répandirent l’élevage des oies, de l’Alsa  ce jusqu’à l’Oural, et apprirent à en maîtriser le gavage, surtout dans les régions où l'on cultive le maïs (qui fut introduit au XVII^e siècle) : l’Alsace et la Hongrie.

     Ainsi, si traditionnellement deux régions de France, l'Alsace et le Sud-ouest, se disputent la paternité de ce mets de fête, l'origine du foie gras est en réalité très ancienne: il est toutefois définit dans la loi française comme faisant partie du patrimoine culturel et gastronomique du pays.

Consommation

Côté cuisine, le foie gras peut être préparé de différentes manières:

• Cru : produit de base de travail des cuisiniers, le foie gras cru permet tous les mariages et mise en valeurs possible du produit, c'est dans cette présentation qu'il peut être préparé avant mise en conserve ou service, il ne se garde pas longtemps. On le trouve sur de nombreux "marchés au gras" du sud de la France, ainsi que chez les producteurs de foie gras d'oie et de canard.
• Mi cuit : le foie gras mi cuit a été pasteurisé à moins de 100° par une cuisso n à cœur et est généralement présenté dans des terrines ou bocaux. Le foie gras mi cuit se conserve plusieurs mois au réfrigérateur, est onctueux et conserve tous les arômes du foie fraichement travaillé.
• Cuit : également appelé foie gras traditionnel, il est stérilisé en autoclave à plus de 100°C. C'est la forme la plus traditionnelle de vente que nous connaissons, à l'instar des grands crus il peut être conservé dans un endroit frais et sec pendant plusieurs années, pendant lesquelles il se bonifiera.

     La France est également que le premier consommateur de ce produit, avec 19 000t annuellement. On le consomme traditionnellement froid en entrée, le plus souvent lors de repas de fête (réveillons de Noël et de la Saint-Sylvestre par exemple). Il est également possible de le consommer chaud, seul (escalope de foie gras poêlée) ou comme ingrédient d'une recette plus élaborée (notamment dans un tournedos Rossini).

Le foie gras est accompagné le plus souvent d'un vin liquoreux, tels le Sauternes ou le Monbazillac.

White horses

     White horses are born white and stay white throughout their life. White horses may have brown, blue, or hazel eyes. "True white" horses, especially those that carry one of the dominant white (W) genes, are rare. Most horses that are commonly referred to as "white" are actually "gray" horses whose hair coats are completely white.

True white horses

     White horses have unpigmented skin and a white hair coat. They are born white and remain this way throughout life. Many white horses have dark eyes, though some have blue eyes. Some white horses are born with partial pigmentation in their skin and hair, which may or may not be retained as they mature. White coloring, whether white markings, white patterns or dominant white is collectively known as depigmentation phenotypes, and all are caused by areas of skin that lack pigment cells (melanocytes). Depigmentation phenotypes have various genetic causes, and  those that have been studied usually map to the EDNRB and KIT genes. However, much of the genetics behind various all-white depigmentation phenotypes is still unknown.

 Dominant white

     Dominant white is best known for producing pink-skinned all-white  horses with brown eyes, though some dominant white horses have residual pigment along the topline. Dominant white is, as the name implies, a genetically dominant color. At least one parent must be dominant white and it does not "skip" generations because it is not recessive. Nonetheless, new variations or mutations producing dominant white do occur spontaneously from time to time.       

      Dominant white is rare, but has occurred in many breeds. It has been studied in Thoroughbreds, Arabian horses, the American White horse and the Camarillo White horse. There are 11 identified variants of dominant white, each corresponding to a spontaneously-white foundation animal and a mutation on the KIT gene. No horse has been identified as homozygous dominant white, and researchers have suggested that at least some forms of dominant white results in nonviable embryos in the homozygous state. 

     While homologous mutations in mice are often linked to anemia and sterility, no such effects have been observed  in dominant white horses. Dominant white horses typically have white noses that can be subject to sunburn.

Sabino-white

     Sabino-white horses are pink-skinned with all-white or nearly-white coats and dark eyes. They are homozygous for the dominant SB1 allele at the Sabino 1 locus, which has been mapped to KIT. Without a DNA test, Sabino-white horses are indistinguishable from dominant white horses.

      The Sabino1 allele, and the associated spotting pattern, is found in Miniature horses, American Quarter Horses, American Paint Horses, Tennessee Walkers, Missouri Fox Trotters, Mustangs, Shetland Ponies, and Aztecas.Sabino 1 has not been found in the Arabian horse, Clydesdale,Thoroughbred, Standardbred horse, or Shire horse. The Sabino 1 allele is not linked to any health defects, though sabino-whites may need some protection from sunburn. Horses with only one copy of the Sabino1 gene usually have dramatic spotting, including two or more white legs, often with white running up the front of the leg, extensive white on the face, spotting on the midsection, and jagged or roaned margins to the pattern.

White born leopards

     The leopard complex, related to the Leopard (LP) gene, characterizes the Appaloosa and Knabstrupper breeds with their spotted coats. Leopard is genetically quite distinct from all other white and white-spotting patterns. The fewspot leopard pattern, however, can resemble white. 

     Two factors influence the eventual appearance of a leopard complex coat: whether one copy (heterozygous LP/lp) or two copies (homozygous LP/LP) Leopard alleles are present, and the degree of dense white patterning present at birth. If a foal is homozygous for the LP allele and has extensive dense white patterning, they will appear nearly white at birth, and may continue to lighten with age. In other parts of the world, these horses are called "white born." 

     "White born" foals are less common among Appaloosa horses than Knabstruppers or Norikers, as the extensive dense white patterning is favored for producing dramatic full leopards. 

     Homozygous leopards have the LP/LP genotype, and may be varnish roan, fewspot leopard, or snowcap patterned. Homozygous leopards are substantially more prone to congenital stationary night blindness. Congenital Stationary Night Blindness is present at birth and is characterized by impaired vision in dark conditions.

Lethal white syndrome

     Lethal white syndrome is a genetic disorder linked to the Frame overo (O) gene and most closely studied in the American Paint Horse. Affected foals are carried to term and at birth appear normal, though they have pink-skinned all-white or nearly-white coats and blue eyes. However, the colon of these foals cannot function due to the absence of nerve cells, and the condition cannot be treated. 

     Foals with Lethal White Syndrome invariably die of colic within 72 hours, and are usually humanely euthanized. Carriers of the gene, who are healthy and normal, can be identified by a DNA test. While carriers often exhibit the "frame overo" pattern, this is not a dispositive trait and testing is necessary, as the pattern can appear in a minimal form as normal white markings or be masked by other white spotting genes.

Famous White Horses

     Many famous horses, past and present, were alleged to be "white" by observers, but were actually grays with hair coats turned fully white. Likewise, most white horses used in movies are actually grays, in part because they are easier to find.

     However, there are a few truly white horses who were used in film. One of the best-known examples was "Silver," ridden by the Lone Ranger, a role actually played by two different white horses. At least one horse who played "Topper," ridden by Hopalong Cassidy, was also white.    

     Another famous white horse is Yukichan, a Japanese Thoroughbred racehorse who won the Kanto Oaks at Kawasaki Racecourse.